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OK. I'm surprised you've got the circle for Cortana's icon. That you don't see the circle-within-a-circle icon popping in/out just to the right of "Show hidden icons" icon (^) especially at startup anymore means no program is using your location. So, location functionality is stuck on OFF. You also have reduced functionality of Cortana - if its requestor doesn't already have weather & news in it when clicked...
It doesn't, does it? However, Cortana still works for you otherwise: it still will give you BING, for instance. You've got those other things in the START button live tiles. I'm starting to think what you have is a viable option, especially if you don't like snoops. So...
I'm near dead in the water with restoring location functionality to you. You have every file I can identify as being part of it. SFC has failed to name the culprit & failed to automatically fix it. DISM failed to fix it. There are too many interconnected registry keys for me to hope giving mine to you. I'll keep looking for a solution specifically for location functionality - but may soon need to admit failure.
I'm sorely disappointed with SFC, DISM & even Windows Update for not restoring location functionality to you - or even just naming the culprit file that Services needs to turn on Geolocation. I think our top priority now need be to fix SFC & DISM - I want them to give clean reports! Maybe doing that gets your location functionality back too.
I've done a BING on your DISM error message. I'm still reading through it. Looks like a tough one.